New approaches and methods proliferated throughout the twentieth century. Some achieved wide levels of acceptance and popularity at different times but were then were replaced by methods based on newer or more appealing ideas and theories. Some, such as Com- municative Language Teaching, were adopted almost universally and achieved the status of methodological orthodoxy.
At the same time, alter- natives to mainstream approaches have always found some level of sup- port within language teaching, though often this has not led to wider acceptance or use. Methods in this category include those from the s such as the Silent Way, Counseling-Learning, Suggestopedia, and Total Physical Response, as well as more recent alternative methods and ap- proaches such as Multiple Intelligences, Neurolinguistic Programming, and the Lexical Approach.
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching seeks to provide a comprehensive and comprehensible account of major and minor trends in language teaching methods from the beginning of the twentieth cen- tury to the present. To highlight the similarities and differences between approaches and methods, the same descriptive framework is used throughout.
This model is presented in Chapter 2 and is used in subse- quent chapters. Rodgers Frontmatter More information Preface underlying theories of language and language learning; the learning ob- jectives; the syllabus model used; the roles of teachers, learners, and materials within the method or approach; and the classroom procedures and techniques that the method uses.
Where a method or approach has extensive and acknowledged links to a particular tradition in second or foreign language teaching, this historical background is treated in the first section of each chapter.
In other cases we have attempted to establish links between the method or approach and more general linguistic, psy- chological, or educational traditions. Within each chapter, our aim has been to present an objective and comprehensive picture of a particular approach or method. We have avoided personal evaluation, preferring to let the method speak for itself and allow readers to make their own appraisals.
The book is not intended to popularize or promote particular approaches or methods, nor is it an attempt to train teachers in the use of the methods described.
Rather, it is designed to give the teacher or teacher trainee a straightforward intro- duction to commonly and less commonly used methods, and a set of criteria by which to critically read, observe, analyze, and question ap- proaches and methods.
Author : Gary D. Author : Jack C. Author : S. The new technique is called the look - and - say Grounded and concise, this first edition text provides readers with theory-based practices that will illuminate the art and craft of teaching.
The ultimate goals, of course, Thus, a method is theoretically related to an approach, is organizationally deter- mined by a design, and is practically realized in procedure. In the re- mainder of this chapter, we will elaborate on the relationship between approach, design, and procedure, using this framework to compare par- ticular methods and approaches in language teaching. In the remaining chapters of the book, we will use the model presented here as a basis for describing a number of widely used approaches and methods.
Approach Following Anthony, approach refers to theories about the nature of lan- guage and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. We will examine the linguistic and psy- cholinguistic aspects of approach in turn. Theory of language At least three different theoretical views of language and the nature of language proficiency explicitly or implicitly inform current approaches and methods in language teaching.
The first, and the most traditional of the three, is the structural view, the view that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. The target of language learning is seen to be the mastery of elements of this system, which are generally defined in terms of phonological units e. The second view of language is the functional view, the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning.
The com- municative movement in language teaching subscribes to this view of language see Chapter This theory emphasizes the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical charac- teristics of language, and leads to a specification and organization of language teaching content by categories of meaning and function rather than by elements of structure and grammar.
A notional syllabus would include not only elements of grammar and lexis but also specify the topics, notions, and concepts the learner needs to communicate about. The English for Spe- cific Purposes ESP movement likewise begins not from a structural theory of language but from a functional account of learner needs Robinson The third view of language can be called the interactional view.
It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations.
Areas of inquiry being drawn on in the development of interactional ap- proaches to language teaching include interaction analysis, conversation analysis, and ethnomethodology. Interactional theories focus on the pat- terns of moves, acts, negotiation, and interaction found in conversational exchanges.
Language teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the inclinations of learners as interactors. The notion of interactivity has also been linked to the teaching of reading and writing as well as listening and speaking skills.
Structural, functional, or interactional models of language or varia- tions on them provide the axioms and theoretical framework that may motivate a particular teaching method, such as Audiolingualism. But in themselves they are incomplete and need to be complemented by theories of language learning. It is to this dimension that we now turn.
Theory of language learning Although specific theories of the nature of language may provide the basis for a particular teaching method, other methods derive primarily from a theory of language learning. A learning theory underlying an approach or method responds to two questions: a What are the psycho- linguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning?
Learning theories associated with a method at the level of approach may emphasize either one or both of these dimen- sions. Process-oriented theories build on learning processes, such as habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization.
Condition-oriented theories emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place. Stephen D. Monitor theory addresses both the process and the condition dimensions of learning.
At the level of process, Krashen distinguishes between acquisition and learning. Acqui- sition refers to the natural assimilation of language rules through using language for communication. Learning refers to the formal study of lan- guage rules and is a conscious process. Tracy D. Although the Natural Approach is based on a learning theory that specifies both processes and conditions, the learning theory underlying such methods as Counseling-Learning and the Silent Way addresses primarily the conditions held to be necessary for learning to take place without specifying what the learning processes themselves are presumed to be see Chapters 6 and 7.
Charles A. Curran in his writings on Counseling-Learning , for example, focuses primarily on the conditions necessary for successful learning. He believes the atmosphere of the classroom is a crucial factor, and his method seeks to ameliorate the feelings of intimidation and inse- curity that many learners experience.
It is based on the belief that child language learning is based on motor activity, on coordinating language with ac- tion, and that this should form the basis of adult foreign language teach- ing.
Orchestrating language production and comprehension with body movement and physical actions is thought to provide the conditions for success in language learning. Many of the techniques used in the method are designed to train learners to consciously use their intelligence to heighten learning potential. There often appear to be natural affinities between certain theories of language and theories of language learning; however, one can imagine different pairings of language theory and learning theory that might work as well as those we observe.
The linking of structuralism a linguistic theory to behaviorism a learning theory produced Audiolingualism. That particular link was not inevitable, however. Cognitive-code propo- nents see Chapter 4 , for example, have attempted to link a more sophis- ticated model of structuralism to a more mentalistic and less behavioristic brand of learning theory.
At the level of approach, we are hence concerned with theoretical principles. With respect to language theory, we are concerned with a model of language competence and an account of the basic features of linguistic organization and language use. With respect to learning theory, we are concerned with an account of the central processes of learning and 23 Downloaded from Cambridge Books Online by IP Teachers may, for example, develop their own teaching procedures, informed by a particular view of language and a particular theory of learning.
A group of teachers holding similar beliefs about language and language learning i. Approach does not specify pro- cedure. Theory does not dictate a particular set of teaching techniques and activities. What links theory with practice or approach with pro- cedure is what we have called design. Design In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a design for an instructional system.
Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider a what the objectives of a method are; b how language content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; c the types of learning tasks and teaching activities the method advocates; d the roles of learners; e the roles of teachers; and f the role of instructional materials. Objectives Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method; that is, they determine what a method sets out to achieve.
The specification of particular learning objectives, however, is a product of design, not of approach. Some methods focus primarily on oral skills and say that reading and writing skills are secondary and derive from transfer of oral skills. Some methods set out to teach general communica- tion skills and give greater priority to the ability to express oneself mean- ingfully and to make oneself understood than to grammatical accuracy or perfect pronunciation.
Others place a greater emphasis on accurate grammar and pronunciation from the very beginning. Some methods set out to teach the basic grammar and vocabulary of a language. Others may define their objectives less in linguistic terms than in terms of learning behaviors, that is, in terms of the processes or abilities the learner is expected to acquire as a result of instruction.
This process-oriented objective may be offered in contrast to the linguistically oriented or product-oriented objectives of more traditional methods. Many methods that claim to be primarily process-oriented in fact show overriding concerns with grammatical and lexical attainment and with accurate grammar and pronunciation.
Content choice and organization: The syllabus All methods of language teaching involve the use of the target language. All methods thus involve overt or covert decisions concerning the selec- tion of language items words, sentence patterns, tenses, constructions, functions, topics, etc.
Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter and linguistic matter. In straightforward terms, one makes deci- sions about what to talk about subject matter and how to talk about it linguistic matter.
ESP courses, for example, are necessarily subject- matter focused. Structurally based methods, such as Situational Lan- guage Teaching and the Audiolingual Method, are necessarily lin- guistically focused. Methods typically differ in what they see as the rele- vant language and subject matter around which language teaching should be organized and the principles used in sequencing content within a course.
Content issues involve the principles of selection Mackey that ultimately shape the syllabus adopted in a course as well as the instructional materials that are used, together with the principles of gra- dation the method adopts.
In grammar-based courses matters of sequenc- ing and gradation are generally determined according to the difficulty of items or their frequency. In communicative or functionally oriented courses e. Traditionally, the term syllabus has been used to refer to the form in which linguistic content is specified in a course or method.
Inevitably, the term has been more closely associated with methods that are product- centered rather than those that are process-centered. Syllabuses and syl- labus principles for Audiolingual, Structural-Situational, and notional- functional methods, as well as in ESP approaches to language program design, can be readily identified. Notional-functional syllabuses specify the communicative content of a course in terms of functions, notions, topics, grammar, and vocabulary.
However, for some of the approaches and methods discussed in this book we have had to infer syllabus assumptions since no explicit syllabus specification is given. This is particularly true where content organization rather than language organization or ped- agogical issues determines syllabus design, as with Content-Based In- struction Chapter The term syllabus, however, is less frequently used in process-based methods, in which considerations of language content are often second- ary.
Counseling-Learning, for example, has no language syllabus as such. Neither linguistic matter nor subject matter is specified in advance.
Learners select content for themselves by choosing topics they want to talk about. These are then translated into the target language and used as the basis for interaction and language practice.
To find out what linguis- tic content had in fact been generated and practiced during a course organized according to Counseling-Learning principles, it would be nec- essary to record the lessons and later determine what items of language had been covered. This would be an a posteriori approach to syllabus specification; that is, the syllabus would be determined from examining lesson protocols.
In both there is a strong emphasis on grammar and grammatical accuracy. Types of learning and teaching activities The objectives of a method, whether defined primarily in terms of prod- uct or process, are attained through the instructional process, through the organized and directed interaction of teachers, learners, and materials in the classroom.
Differences among methods at the level of approach man- ifest themselves in the choice of different kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom. Teaching activities that focus on grammatical accuracy may be quite different from those that focus on communicative skills. Activities designed to focus on the development of specific psycho- linguistic processes in language acquisition will differ from those directed toward mastery of particular features of grammar.
Audiolingualism, for example, uses dialogue and pattern practice extensively. The Silent Way employs problem-solving activities that involve the use of special charts and colored rods. As well, tasks have be- come a central focus in both second language acquisition research and second language pedagogy. The history and some of the current interpre- tations of the nature of language teaching tasks are described in detail in Chapter 18 in relation to Task-Based Language Teaching.
Different philosophies at the level of approach may be reflected both in the use of different kinds of activities and in different uses for particular activity types.
For example, interactive games are often used in au- diolingual courses for motivation and to provide a change of pace from pattern-practice drills. In communicative language teaching, the same games may be used to introduce or provide practice for particular types of interactive exchanges.
Differences in activity types in methods may also involve different arrangements and groupings of learners. Activity types in methods thus include the primary categories of learning and teaching activity the method advocates, such as dialogue, responding to commands, group problem solving, information-exchange activities, improvisations, ques- tion and answer, or drills.
Because of the different assumptions they make about learning pro- cesses, syllabuses, and learning activities, methods also attribute different roles and functions to learners, teachers, and instructional materials within the instructional process.
These constitute the next three compo- nents of design in method analysis. Learner roles The design of an instructional system will be considerably influenced by how learners are regarded. This is seen in the types of activities learners carry out, the degree of control learners have over the content of learning, the patterns of 27 Downloaded from Cambridge Books Online by IP Much of the criticism of Audiolingualism came from the recognition of the very limited roles available to learners in audiolingual methodology.
Learners were seen as stimulus-response mechanisms whose learning was a direct result of repetitive practice. Newer methodologies customarily exhibit more concern for learner roles and for variation among learners. Johnson and Paulston spell out learner roles in an individualized approach to language learning in the following terms: a Learners plan their own learning program and thus ultimately assume responsibility for what they do in the classroom; b Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress; c Learners are members of a group and learn by interact- ing with others; d Learners tutor other learners; e Learners learn from the teacher, from other students, and from other teaching sources.
Counseling-Learning views learners as having roles that change develop- mentally, and Curran uses an ontogenetic metaphor to suggest this development. He divides the developmental process into five stages, ex- tending from total dependency on the teacher in stage 1 to total indepen- dence in stage 5. These learner stages Curran sees as parallel to the growth of a child from embryo to independent adulthood, passing through childhood and adolescence.
Teacher roles are similarly related ultimately both to assumptions about language and language learning at the level of ap- proach. Teacher and learner roles define the type of interaction characteristic of classrooms in which a particular method is being used. Teacher roles in methods are related to the following issues: a the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model, for example; b the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place; c the degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught; and d the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners.
Methods typically depend critically on teacher roles and their realiza- tions. In the classical Audiolingual Method, the teacher is regarded as the primary source of language and of language learning.
The role of the teacher in the Silent Way, for example, depends on thorough training and methodological initiation. For some methods, the role of the teacher has been specified in detail. Individualized approaches to learning define roles for the teacher that create specific patterns of interaction between teachers and learners in classrooms.
These are designed to shift the responsibility for learning gradually from the teacher to the learner. As these examples suggest, the potential role relationships of learner and teacher are many and varied. They may be asymmetrical relation- ships, such as those of conductor to orchestra member, therapist to pa- tient, coach to player. Some contemporary methodologies have sought to establish more symmetrical kinds of learner—teacher relationships, such as friend to friend, colleague to colleague, teammate to teammate.
The role of the teacher will ultimately reflect both the objectives of the method and the learning theory on which the method is predicated, since the success of a method may depend on the degree to which the teacher can provide the content or create the conditions for successful language learning. The role of instructional materials The last component within the level of design concerns the role of instruc- tional materials within the instructional system.
What is specified with respect to objectives, content i. The syllabus defines linguistic content in terms of language elements — structures, topics, notions, functions — or, in some cases, of learning tasks see Johnson ; Prabhu It also defines the goals for language learning in terms of speaking, listening, reading, or writing skills.
The instructional materials in their turn further specify subject- matter content, even where no syllabus exists, and define or suggest the intensity of coverage for syllabus items, allocating the amount of time, attention, and detail particular syllabus items or tasks require.
Instruc- tional materials also define or imply the day-to-day learning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of the syllabus. Materials designed on the assumption that learning is initiated and monitored by the teacher must meet quite different requirements from those designed for student 29 Downloaded from Cambridge Books Online by IP Some methods require the instruc- tional use of existing materials, found materials, and realia.
Some assume teacher-proof materials that even poorly trained teachers with imperfect control of the target language can teach with. Some materials require specially trained teachers with near-native competence in the target lan- guage. Some are designed to replace the teacher, so that learning can take place independently. Some materials dictate various interactional pat- terns in the classroom; others inhibit classroom interaction; still others are noncommittal about interaction between teacher and learner and learner and learner.
The role of instructional materials within a method or instructional system will reflect decisions concerning the primary goal of materials e. A particular design for an instructional system may imply a particular set of roles for materials in support of the syllabus and the teachers and learners.
Materials will focus on the communicative abilities of interpretation, expression, and negotiation. Materials will focus on understandable, relevant, and interesting ex- changes of information, rather than on the presentation of grammati- cal form.
Materials will involve different kinds of texts and different media, which the learners can use to develop their competence through a variety of different activities and tasks. By comparison, the role of instructional materials within an individu- alized instructional system might include the following specifications: 1. Materials will allow learners to progress at their own rates of learning. Materials will allow for different styles of learning.
Materials will provide opportunities for independent study and use. Materials will provide opportunities for self-evaluation and progress in learning. The content of a method such as Counseling-Learning is assumed to be a product of the interests of the learners, since learners generate their own subject matter.
On the other hand, Counseling-Learning acknowledges the need for learner mastery of cer- tain linguistic mechanics, such as vocabulary, grammar, and pronuncia- tion. Thus, Counseling-Learning has proposed the use of teaching machines and other programmed materials to support the learning of some of the more mechanical aspects of language so as to free the teacher to function increasingly as a learning counselor.
Procedure The last level of conceptualization and organization within a method is what we will refer to as procedure. This encompasses the actual moment- to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method. It is the level at which we describe how a method realizes its approach and design in classroom behavior.
At the level of design we saw that a method will advocate the use of certain types of teaching activities as a consequence of its theoreti- cal assumptions about language and learning.
At the level of procedure, we are concerned with how these tasks and activities are integrated into lessons and used as the basis for teaching and learning. There are three dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: a the use of teaching activities drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc. Essentially, then, procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and feedback phases of teaching.
Here, for exam- ple, is a description of the procedural aspects of a beginning Silent Way course based on Stevick 44 — 45 : 1. The teacher points at meaningless symbols on a wall chart. The sym- bols represent the syllables of the spoken language.
The students read the sounds aloud, first in chorus and then individually. After the students can pronounce the sounds, the teacher moves to a second set of charts containing words frequently used in the language, including numbers. The teacher leads the students to pronounce long numbers. The teacher uses colored rods together with charts and gestures to lead the students into producing the words and basic grammatical struc- tures needed. Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini-dialogues.
Oral practice of each utterance in the dialogue. Questions and answers based on the topic and situation in the dialogue. Study of the basic communicative expressions used in the dialogue or one of the structures that exemplify the function. Learner discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression of structure. Oral recognition, interpretative procedures. Oral production activities, proceeding from guided to freer communication.
We expect methods to be most obviously idiosyncratic at the level of procedure, though classroom observations often reveal that teachers do not necessarily follow the procedures a method prescribes. The elements and subelements that constitute a method and that we have described under the rubrics of approach, design, and procedure are summarized in Figure 2.
Conclusion The model presented in this chapter demonstrates that any language teaching method can be described in terms of the issues identified here at the levels of approach, design, and procedure. Very few methods are explicit with respect to all of these dimensions, however. In the remaining chapters of this book we will attempt to make each of these features of approach, design, and procedure explicit with reference to the major language teaching approaches and methods in use today.
In so doing, we will often have to infer from what method developers have written in order to determine precisely what criteria are being used for teaching activities, what claims are being made about learning theory, what type of syllabus is being employed, and so on. The model presented here is not intended to imply that methodological 32 Downloaded from Cambridge Books Online by IP It is not clear whether such a developmental formula is possible, and our model certainly does not describe the typical case.
Methods can develop out of any of the three categories. One can, for example, stumble on or invent a set of teaching procedures that appear to be successful and then later develop a design and a theoretical approach that explain or justify the procedures. Some methodologists would resist calling their proposals a method, although, if descriptions are possible at each of the levels described here, we would argue that what is advocated has, in fact, the status of a method.
Let us now turn to the major approaches and teaching methods that are in use today and examine them according to how they reflect specific decisions at the levels of approach, design, and procedure.
Bibliography and further reading Alexander, L. Allen, R. Close, and R. English Grammatical Structure. Anthony, E. Approach, method and technique. English Language Teaching 63— Asher, J. Los Gatos, Calif. Bosco, F. Di Pietro. Instructional strategies: Their psychologi- cal and linguistics bases. International Review of Applied Linguistics 8: 1— Breen, M. The essentials of a communicative curricu- lum in language teaching.
Applied Linguistics 1 2 : 89— Brown, J. The Elements of the Language Curriculum. Carrell, P. Devine, and D. Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Curran, C. New York: Grune and Stratton. Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Ill. Finocchiaro, M. New York: Oxford University Press. Fries, C. Foundations for English Teaching. Tokyo: Kenkyusha. Gattegno, C. New York: Educational Solutions. Holliday, A. Appropriate Methodology. Johnson, F. Individualizing in the Language Class- room. Cambridge, Mass. Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. Long, M.
Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. Prabhu, N. Procedural syllabuses. File size error: The file exceeds allowed the limit MB and can not be uploaded. Unable to upload a file: This file type is not supported.
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